Abstract
Terrorism is an extreme threat to the international security. Terrorist activities are thriving on porous borders and globalization, which has led to the interconnection of international systems of communications, finance, and transportation. The most notorious terrorist groups are al-Qaeda, ISIS, Boko Haram, Tehrik-i-Taliban Pakistan, and Taliban among others. Their activities undermine every aspect of social, cultural, political, and economic development. They destabilize economies, disrupt peace and instill fear, endanger lives, and spur violence in the society. When such incidences occur, countries respond by improving and developing new strategies to combat terrorism. This paper examines how the intelligence community changed after the infamous 9/11 attack that left approximately 3000 people dead. The tragic events of 9/11 exposed two major limitations in the U.S. intelligence community and its capability to combat terrorism. First, the U.S. still relied on the Cold War relic structure; therefore, the intelligence community failed to respond in an integrated manner. Secondly, there were inadequate planning strategies for counterterrorism operations by the executive branch.
On top of that, the FBI, CIA, and the NSA were underfunded after the Cold War. This limited the operations of the intelligence community. After 9/11, the U.S. generated a comprehensive response by establishing legal and normative strategies to combat terrorism. Various improvements and positions were created including the Director of National Intelligence and the Department of Homeland Security. Agencies like the FBI and the CIA also transitioned from traditional intelligence to counterterrorism. These, with other measures, have improved the security of the U.S. However, there is still need for more interventions since terrorism is still a threat to the nation.
How 9/11 Transformed the Criminal Justice Agencies
Introduction
Terrorism is an extreme threat to the international security. Recent years have seen an evolution in the terrorist networks that shifted from dependency on state sponsorship to operate as non-state actors individually (International Institutions and Global Governance Program, 2011). Terrorist activities are thriving on porous borders and globalization, which has led to the interconnection of international systems of communications, finance, and transportation. The most notorious group is al-Qaeda, whose terrorist activities have diffused from Afghanistan and Pakistan to every corner of the globe including Yemen, Southeast Asia, and North Africa (International Institutions and Global Governance Program, 2011). Al-Qaeda attacks have normally demonstrated an intense opposition to Western influence and looks to create an international Islamic caliphate. Other notable terrorist groups include ISIS, Taliban, Tehrik-i-Taliban Pakistan, and Boko Haram. Their activities undermine every aspect of social, cultural, political, and economic development. They destabilize economies, disrupt peace and instill fear, endanger lives, and spur violence in the society. Acts of terrorism have equally plagued Europe and the United States. For instance, the infamous 9/11 attacks on Sep 11, 2001, on the U.S. soil that killed almost 3,000 people shocked the entire world (Smith & Zeigler, 2017). When such incidences occur, countries respond by improving and developing new strategies to combat terrorism. This paper explores the transformation of the criminal justice agencies including homeland security, the FBI, and the CIA after the 9/11 attack.
Security Overview before 9/11
Before diving into the transformations in the intelligence community, it is important to look at how terrorism was managed before, and the weaknesses of the intelligence agencies. In the 1990s, terrorism was likely to be given a high priority in Georgia, New York, and Oklahoma since they were the most vulnerable states. In 1993, the World Trade Center Towers in NYC was bombed, killing six and injuring over 1,000 people. In 1995, a bomb blast occurred at the Murrah Federal Building in Oklahoma City where 168 people were killed and over 500 injured. A year later, terrorists targeted the Centennial Olympic Park in Atlanta and left 112 injured and one woman dead (The Council of State Governments & Eastern Kentucky University, 2006). From 1997, the federal government, through the Nunn-Lugar-Domenici Domestic Preparedness Program, began funding selected cities to enhance terrorism prevention. Terrorism prevention was less prioritized by state and local enforcement agencies before 9/11. For instance, the FBI and other local law enforcement majorly focused on fighting financial crimes, drug trafficking, organized crime, and bank robberies (The Council of State Governments & Eastern Kentucky University, 2006).
The tragic events of 9/11 exposed two major limitations in the U.S. intelligence community and its capability to combat terrorism. First, The U.S. still relied on the Cold War relic structure; therefore, the intelligence community failed to respond in an integrated manner. Secondly, there were inadequate planning strategies for counterterrorism operations by the executive branch. On top of that, the FBI, CIA, and the NSA were underfunded after the Cold War, which limited the operations of the intelligence community. The mentioned problems featured prominently in the 2004 National Commission on Terrorist Attacks upon the United States report. This called for restructuring in the intelligence community (Gingerich & Coyle, 2013).
After 9/11
After 9/11, the U.S. generated a comprehensive response by establishing legal and normative strategies to combat terrorism. Various improvements and positions were created including the Director of National Intelligence, the Department of Defense, the Department of the Treasury, Drug Enforcement Administration, and the Department of Homeland Security. Additionally, there have been transformations in the structure and counterterrorism performance of various agencies including the CIA, the FBI, and the military service intelligence services (The Council of State Governments & Eastern Kentucky University, 2006). Besides the above changes in criminal justice agencies, other security-related measures after 9/11 include the Aviation and Transportation Security Act that gave birth to the Transportation Security Administration to enhance security in U.S. airports. Other legislations that were passed in response to 9/11 are the Patriot Act, Enhanced Border Security and Visa Entry Reform Act, Post-9/11 G.I. Bill, and the James Zadroga 9/11 Health and Compensation Act of 2010 (Gingerich & Coyle, 2013).
The Homeland Security Department
Following the report of the 9/11 Commission, Congress has passed a series of bipartisan legislative policies to oversee the coordination of the federal government’s resources to combat terrorism and natural disasters effectively. These legislative initiatives also work to enhance the capabilities of the local and state governments, the private sector, and first responders (U.S. Senate Committee on Homeland Security and Governmental Affairs, n.d.). The key element of the security framework was the establishment of the Department of Homeland Security (DHS) in 2003, consolidating 22 separate agencies tasked with disaster prevention, preparedness, and response into a single department. The Homeland Security Department was created to primarily protect Americans from terrorists and other threats including natural disasters. DHS collaborates with various bodies in the federal government, private and public sectors, and nationwide communities to improve the homeland security and enhance the defense against dynamic threats (U.S. Senate Committee on Homeland Security and Governmental Affairs, n.d.). Congress also passed the Intelligence Reform and Terrorism Prevention Act of 2004, which paved the way for the creation of Director of National Intelligence. DNI ensures coordination of all 15 federal intelligence agencies. The National Counter Terrorism Center was also created on the founding principle of analyzing intelligence information.
During the Hurricane Katrina in 2005, a major natural disaster in the recent history of U.S., the DHS including other agencies underperformed, according to the report released by the committee of investigation (U.S. Senate Committee on Homeland Security and Governmental Affairs, n.d.). Consequently, the Post Katrina Emergency Management Reform Act of 2006 was passed to enhance the DHS’ ability to protect the country against all kinds of hazards. In 2007, the Senate, based on 9/11 commission information, improved the DHS’ existing efforts to keep the nation safe. The Implementing Recommendations of the 9/11 Commission Act of 2007 was established, amplifying the distribution of homeland security grant programs. Additionally, the act requires cargo screening of all passenger airplanes and protects citizens who report suspected terrorist activities in airplanes, buses, and trains. Another responsibility of the act is to boost emergency communications for local and state first responders and fund rail, bus, and transit security processes (U.S. Senate Committee on Homeland Security and Governmental Affairs, n.d.) There have been continuous efforts to strengthen the government’s capacity to respond to terrorist attacks through weapons of mass destruction and most lethal biological pathogens in laboratories.
The CIA
The CIA transformed from the traditional intelligence to counterterrorism at an impressive speed. The Advanced technology featured in the CIA’s Directorate of Science and Technology is an excellent innovation. This unit required more support and staffing to intensify its activities, which prompted the CIA to grow its science and technology team (Gingerich & Coyle, 2013). Since the 9/11 Commission had emphasized improvements on intelligence gathering, the CIA doubled its operatives and analysts across the border to enhance their foreign intelligence. Drone strikes were introduced and are used to drop bombs in targeted areas mostly in Pakistan and Afghanistan although they have drawn intense criticism on effectiveness and safety (Gingerich & Coyle, 2013).
The FBI
The FBI has transformed many agents from traditional criminal programs to counterterrorism intelligence, has doubled the number of intelligence analysts, tripled the number of linguistics, and lastly the agency is deeply dedicated to cyber-terrorism prevention (Gingerich & Coyle, 2013). With all the transformations in the intelligence community, a study done by Smith & Zeigler (2017) indicated that the post 9/11 era is less susceptible to terrorism compared to the years preceding it. However, despite the progress made towards terrorism preparedness, prevention, and response, there are still weaknesses in the intelligence community. Some of the challenges include inadequate compliance and enforcement of available tools and inadequate assistance from international communities to help countries build counterterrorism capacities (International Institutions and Global Governance Program, 2011).
Conclusion
Terrorism is the greatest threat to the international security today. Terrorists take advantage of porous borders and the interconnection of international systems like communications, finance, and transportation to advance their activities. Their activities leave a crippling impact on all sectors including economic, social, cultural, and political. For instance, 9/11 greatly affected every facet of the American landscape including the intelligence community. The event led to a massive transformation in the intelligence community including the CIA and the FBI, which changed their operations from traditional intelligence to counterterrorism. The Homeland Security Department was established to primarily ensure the protection of Americans against all kinds of hazards. Other measures including the creation of Director of National Intelligence have worked together to ensure the nation is less prone to terrorism. There is still, however, need for more counterterrorism measures since terrorism is still the biggest threat.
References
Council of State Governments & Eastern Kentucky University. (2006, June). The impact of terrorism on state law enforcement: Adjusting to new roles and changing conditions. The National Institute of Justice. Retrieved from https://www.ncjrs.gov/pdffiles1/nij/grants/216642.pdf
Gingerich, C. & Coyle, G. (2013). National security policy responses to the 9/11 attacks. SPEA Undergraduate Honors Thesis. Retrieved from https://spea.indiana.edu/doc/undergraduate/ugrd_thesis2013_mgmt_gingerich.pdf
International Institutions and Global Governance Program. (2011, Aug 31). The global regime for terrorism. council on foreign relations. Retrieved from https://www.cfr.org/report/global-regime-terrorism
Smith, M. & Zeigler, S.M. (2017, Nov 10). Terrorism Before and After – A more Dangerous World? Sage Journals. 4(4). Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1177/2053168017739757
U.S. Senate Committee on Homeland Security & Governmental Affairs. (n.d). 9-11 Commission, Homeland Security, and Intelligence Reform. U.S. Senate Committee on Homeland Security & Governmental Affairs. Retrieved from https://www.hsgac.senate.gov/issues/9-11-commission
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